Middle American Indian

The physical spine of Middle America is the broad mountain chain extending from the southern end of the Rockies to the northern tip of the Andes, with Middle America in the area from northern Mexico to Nicaragua. The mountain chain marks off the area into four major regions.

Arts, Central Asian, Tibetan music

Tibetan religious music is the only Central Asian repertoire that has a long history of written notation. This notation, for liturgical chant, consists of neumes—i.e., symbols representing melodic contour rather than precise pitch, similar to the earliest music writing of medieval Europe. Also distinctive is the metaphysical aspect of Tibetan Buddhist music, related

Astor, Caroline Webster Schermerhorn

Caroline Schermerhorn was the daughter of a wealthy merchant and had colonial Dutch aristocracy on both sides of her family tree. Her marriage to William Astor, son of William Backhouse

Egypt, The interwar period

Fu'ad was never popular and felt insecure, and was therefore prepared to intrigue with the nationalists or with the British to secure his position and powers. The Wafd, with its mass following, elaborate organization, and (until his death in 1927) charismatic leader in Zaghlul, was the only truly national party in Egypt. Ideologically, it stood for national independence against

Eagle Ray

Any of about two dozen species of exclusively marine rays constituting the family Myliobatidae (order Rajiformes), occurring in the major oceans. They have the enlarged, winglike pectoral fins characteristic of the order. Some species have a sharp-edged serrated spine at the base of the long, whiplike tail. Their teeth are flat, for crushing and grinding mollusks

Catherine Of Sweden, Saint

Catherine was married to Egard Lydersson von Kyren, who died shortly after she left for Rome (1350) to join Bridget as her constant companion. She did not return to Sweden until after Bridget's death in 1373. She took part in the ecclesiastical controversies

China, Pei (Northern) Sung (960–1127)

The Pei Sung (also known simply as the Sung) was the last major Chinese dynasty to be founded by a coup d'état. Its founder, Chao K'uang-yin (known by his temple name, T'ai-tsu), the commander of the capital area of K'ai-feng and inspector general of the Imperial forces, usurped the throne from the Hou Chou, the last of the Wu-tai.

T'ien-t'ai

The chief scripture of the school is the Lotus Sutra (Chinese: Fa-hua Ching; Sanskrit: Saddharmapu

Turboprop

The first experimental turboprop aircraft, a modified Gloster Meteor fighter equipped with two Rolls-Royce

Athabaska, District Of

Part of the original Northwest Territories in Canada. The district was created in 1882 and enlarged by an eastward extension in 1895. It was abolished in 1905. Its area comprised the northern parts of present Alberta and Saskatchewan and a small portion of northwestern Manitoba.

Culion Island

Island, one of the Calamian Group (q.v.), west-central Philippines. The island has an area of 150 square miles (389 square km) and is the site of Culion Reservation, a therapeutic community founded in 1906 for the treatment of leprosy (Hansen's disease). Rice and coconuts are grown on the island. Culion, the main settlement, is located on the northeastern coast. Pop. (latest census) 4,785.

Ben Barka, Mehdi

Ben Barka, the son of a Moroccan policeman, taught mathematics

Augustine, Saint

The most widespread and longest-lasting theological controversies of the 4th century focused on the Christian doctrine of the Trinity—that is, the threeness of God represented in the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Augustine's Africa had been left out of much of the fray, and most of what was written on the subject was in Greek, a language Augustine barely knew and had little

Episome

In bacteria, one of a group of extrachromosomal genetic elements called plasmids, consisting of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and capable of conferring a selective advantage upon the bacteria in which they occur. Episomes may be attached to the bacterial cell membrane (such a cell is designated F+) or become integrated into the chromosome (such a cell is designated

Icelandic Literature

Body of writings in Icelandic, including those from Old Icelandic (also called Old Norse) through Modern Icelandic. It is best known for the richness of its classical period, which is equivalent in time to the early and medieval periods in western European literature. See Scandinavian literature; Edda; Icelanders' sagas; saga; skaldic poetry.

Bulgaria, Slavic invasions

The story of the modern Bulgarian people begins with the Slavic invasions of the Balkan Peninsula in the 6th and 7th centuries AD, a time when Byzantium was absorbed in prolonged conflict with Persia and could not resist the incursions from the north. Ancient sources refer to two Slavic tribes north of the Danube at this time, the Slavenae and the Antae. Evidence suggests

Philadelphia

Philadelphia has been described either as the elegant but rather jaded great lady or as the overage and sickly spinster of American cities. A more realistic look at Philadelphia, however, shows it to be a very

Bohol Sea

Also called  Mindanao Sea,  section of the western North Pacific Ocean. Measuring about 170 miles (270 km) east–west, it is bounded by the islands of the Philippines—Mindanao (south and east), Leyte, Bohol, and Cebu (north), and Negros (west). It opens north to the Visayan Sea through Bohol and Tañon straits and the Canigao Channel, east to the Philippine Sea through the Surigao Strait, and west to the Sulu Sea. The

Canterbury

Local government region, east-central South Island, New Zealand, centred on the Canterbury Plains. The region borders the Pacific Ocean to the east and extends southward from the vicinity of Kaikoura to the Waitaki River and includes the city of Christchurch and Banks Peninsula. Canterbury's area also stretches westward to include the eastern slopes of the Southern

Lagos

City and chief port, Lagos state, Nigeria. Until 1975 it was the capital of Lagos state, and until December 1991 it was the federal capital of Nigeria. Ikeja replaced Lagos as the state capital, and Abuja replaced Lagos as the federal capital. Lagos, however, remained the unofficial seat of many government agencies. The city's population is centred on Lagos Island, in Lagos Lagoon,

Indian Philosophy, The logical period

The logical period of Indian thought began with the Kusanas (1st–2nd centuries). Gautama (author of the Nyaya-sutras; probably flourished at the beginning of the Christian Era) and his 5th-century commentator Vatsyayana established the foundations of the Nyaya as a school almost exclusively preoccupied with logical and epistemological issues. The Madhyamika (“Middle

Allergy

Antigens that provoke an allergic reaction are called allergens. Typical allergens include pollens, drugs, lints, bacteria, foods, and dyes or chemicals. The immune system contains several mechanisms

Lahore Museum

Also called  Central Museum,   in Lahore, Pak., archaeological museum opened in 1894 and containing examples of the arts and crafts of the province of Punjab, including sculpture, coins, and Kangra (Pahari) and Mughal paintings and fabrics. Greco-Buddhist sculptures excavated from sites in the Peshawar district are on display. The central part of the archaeological gallery has a stupa drum of Sikri, carved

Wachsmann, Konrad

Originally apprenticed as a cabinetmaker, Wachsmann studied at the arts-and-crafts schools of Berlin and Dresden and at the Berlin Academy of Arts (under the Expressionist architect Hans Poelzig). During

Roper River

River in Northern Territory, Australia, formed by the confluence of Waterhouse River and Beswick Creek east of Mataranka and flowing east for 250 miles (400 km) to Limmen Bight on the Gulf of Carpentaria. It marks the southern limit of the rugged region known as Arnhem Land. The flow of the river system, which drains an area of 23,500 square miles (60,860 square km), increases greatly during

Apries

Apries failed to help his ally King Zedekiah of Judah against Babylon, but after the fall of Jerusalem he received many Jewish refugees into Egypt. Later he took the Phoenician port of Sidon, but, because of his subsequent failure in an attack on Cyrene in Libya, the Egyptian army mutinied

Aryan

(from Sanskrit arya, “noble”), a people who, in prehistoric times, settled in Iran and northern India. From their language, also called Aryan, the Indo-European languages of South Asia are descended. In the 19th century the term was used as a synonym for “Indo-European” and also, more restrictively, to refer to the Indo-Iranian languages (q.v.). It is now used in linguistics only in the

Indian Ocean

Body of salt water, covering approximately one-fifth of the total ocean area of the world. It is the smallest, youngest, and physically most complex of the world's three major oceans. It stretches for more than 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometres) between the southern tips of Africa and Australia and, without its marginal seas, has an area of about 28,360,000 square miles (73,440,000 square kilometres). The Indian

Dennis

Town (township), Barnstable county, southeastern Massachusetts, U.S. It extends across Cape Cod and includes the villages of Dennis, Dennis Port (Dennisport), East Dennis, South Dennis, and West Dennis. Settled in 1639, it was a part of Yarmouth until 1793, when it was incorporated and named for Josiah Dennis, pastor of the first meetinghouse. Clipper ships were once built in Shiverick

Fu-k'ang-an

A member of the Manchu forces of Manchuria who had established the Ch'ing dynasty, Fu-k'ang-an inherited a minor post in the government. After distinguishing himself in battle, he was made military governor of Manchuria (1777). Between 1780 and 1795 he served several terms as governor-general in different Chinese provinces.

Insurance, Export credit insurance

A special form of credit insurance is available to exporters against losses from both commercial and political risks. In the United States, for example, export credit insurance is written through a consortium of insurance companies organized by the Foreign Credit Insurance Association (FCIA). The Export-Import Bank of the United States assumes the ultimate liability

Factorial

Factorials are commonly encountered in the evaluation of permutations and combinations and in the coefficients of terms of binomial

Well Logging

When electrical instruments are employed, the technique involves the recording of variations in the natural electrical properties of subsurface formations. Changes in the porosity, fluid content, or lithology (rock character) of the formation are indicated

Theobald I

He was the son of Theobald III of Champagne,

Philetaerus

Philetaerus initiated the policies that made Pergamum a leading centre of Greek civilization in the East. He served under Antigonus I Monophthalmus, successor to Alexander

Swan Service

Set of porcelain tableware made at the Meissen factory in Germany between 1737 and 1741 by Johann Joachim Kändler and Johann Friedrich Eberlein. Made for Heinrich, Count von Brühl, the factory director, it was composed of 2,200 pieces modeled and painted in the Rococo style with such aquatic motifs as swans and water nymphs. It is probably the single finest table service ever made

Yama

The second stage, niyama (Sanskrit: “discipline”), in its ethical

Romance Languages

Group of related languages all derived from Vulgar Latin within historical times and forming a subgroup of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family. The major languages of the family include French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian, all national languages. Catalan also has taken on a political and cultural significance; among the Romance

Presbyterian Church (u.s.a.)

The U.S. Presbyterian Church traces its beginnings to the earliest Presbyterian

Gwalior

The old city of Gwalior centres on a walled fortress, one of the most famous in India,

Marwan Ii

The grandson of Marwan I, Marwan II was governor of Armenia and other territories for 12 years, gaining military experience which later led him to reorganize the Islamic army. In place of a clumsy system of divisions based on tribal

Halakhah

Also spelled  Halakha, Halakah, or Halachah (Hebrew: “the Way”),  plural  Halakhahs, Halakhot, Halakhoth, or Halachot,   in Judaism, the totality of laws and ordinances that have evolved since biblical times to regulate religious observances and the daily life and conduct of the Jewish people. Quite distinct from the Law of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible), Halakhah purports to preserve and represent oral traditions stemming from the revelation on Mount Sinai or

Annabergite

Hydrated nickel arsenate mineral that is very similar to erythrite (q.v.).

Madách, Imre

Madách possessed keen and varied interests; he was successively a lawyer, a public servant, and a member of the Hungarian parliament (from 1861). His masterpiece,

Ikeya-seki, Comet

One of a group of Sun-grazing comets having similar orbits and including the great comet known as 1882 II. Discovered Sept. 18, 1965, by two Japanese amateur astronomers, Ikeya Kaoru and Seki Tsutomu, Ikeya-Seki made its closest approach to the Sun (470,000 kilometres, or about 290,000 miles; less than the Sun's radius) on Oct. 21, 1965. The comet was then bright enough to be seen with the naked eye in daylight. Like

Duchesne, André

Duchesne was educated at Loudun and Paris and devoted his early years to studies in history and geography. His first work, Egregiarum seu Selectarum Lectionum et Antiquitatum

Margam

Locality, Neath Port Talbot county borough, historic county of Glamorgan (Morgannwg), Wales. Situated inland of the sandy Margam Burrows at the base of the peaks Mynydd Margam and Moel Ton-mawr, the community of Margam developed around a Cistercian abbey founded by Robert, earl of Gloucester, in 1147. Margam Abbey was a prominent cultural and educational centre until its

Rush, William

Rush trained to make ornamental ship carvings and figureheads. During the American Revolution he served as an officer in Philadelphia's militia and campaigned with George Washington in the city's defense. Shortly after

Furniture, The United States

The new classicism of Robert and James Adam came into vogue in the new republic during the last years of the century. The shipowners and merchants of Salem, Boston, and New York equipped their mansions with the work of Samuel McIntire, John Seymour, and Duncan Phyfe, each of whom produced individual interpretations of the Hepplewhite-Sheraton mode. This early Federal

Bahawalpur

The city, which lies just south of the Sutlej River, was founded in 1748 by Muhammad Bahawal Khan and was incorporated as a municipality in 1874. It is the site of the Adamwahan (Empress) Bridge, the only railway bridge over the Sutlej

Computers, Microsoft's Windows Operating System

In 1985 Microsoft came out with its Windows operating system, which gave PC compatibles some of the same capabilities as the Macintosh. Year after year, Microsoft refined and improved Windows so that Apple, which failed to come up with a significant new advantage, lost its edge. IBM tried to establish yet another operating system, OS/2, but lost the battle to Gates's company.

Karaganda

Oblast (province), central Kazakhstan. It lies mostly in the Kazakh Uplands in a dry steppe zone, rising gradually in elevation eastward to a maximum in the Karkaraly Mountains of 5,115 feet (1,559 m). The principal rivers, the Nura and Sarysu, are in the west, in the Musbel lowland. The climate is continental (tending to extremes) and dry, with severe winters, marked by prolonged snowstorms

Poland, The Carpathians

The southernmost and also most scenic portion of Poland embraces the Carpathian Mountains and their associated chains and basins, created in the geologically recent mountain-building Tertiary Period (about 66.4 to 1.6 million years ago). Within the Polish frontiers lie the Oswiecim and Sandomierz basins, a portion of the Beskid Mountains, the Orawka-Podhale Basin, and the

Argentina, Overviews

The colonial and early national periods are variously covered in Eduardo Crawley, A House Divided: Argentina, 1880–1980 (1984); John Lynch, Argentine Dictator: Juan Manuel De Rosas, 1829–1852 (1981); David Rock, Argentina, 1516–1987: From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsín (1987); James R. Scobie, Argentina: A City and a Nation, 2nd ed. (1971); and Ione S. Wright and Lisa M. Nekhom, Historical Dictionary of Argentina (1978).

Gabriel

Hebrew  Gavri'el,  Arabic  Gibra'il, Jabra'il,  or  Jibril,   in the Bible and the Qur'an, one of the archangels. Gabriel was the heavenly messenger sent to Daniel to explain the vision of the ram and the he-goat and to communicate the prediction of the Seventy Weeks. He was also employed to announce the birth of John the Baptist to Zechariah and to announce the birth of Jesus to the Virgin Mary. It is because he stood in the divine presence